If most of the world that we know today was indeed created in the 20^th century, having some knowledge about what happened right before — i.e., during the 19^th century — would be helpful.  

Recently, I scanned through three books (more precisely, I read a few chapters of each book).  They all focus on 19^th century matters, ranging from economic growth to scientific developments.  

• Osterhammel, Jürgen. The Transformation of the World. Princeton University Press.
• Maier, Charles. Leviathan 2.0: Inventing Modern Statehood. Harvard University Press.
• Frieden, Jeffry. Global Capitalism. W. W. Norton & Company.

Reading history helps us understand what makes history move.  It also helps us gain foresight into what can happen next in our own times.

So, I wanted to write down what I found interesting from the three books.  To be clear, the following are basically direct & indirect quotes from these three books.  All credits go to these authors.

Technology

Bismarck said in 1862 that the great questions of the day were being decided not by high ideals and lofty speeches, but by “blood and iron.”

Steamboats: In the 1830s, steamboats were able to travel intercontinentally.  In just a few years, by the early 1840s, British steamships defeated the Qing Dynasty (probably Qing’s first military defeat in about 200 years) in what is commonly known as the Opium War.

Steam train:  Steam train routes were first opened in 1830 in Britain and the U.S., 1851 in India, 1857 in Argentina, and 1872 in Japan.  The U.S. completed its first transcontinental line in 1869; the Russian finished its trans-Siberian line in the first years of the 20th century.  The world’s total railroad construction was 4,700 miles in 1840 and it reached approximately half a million miles by 1900.  During the Qing Dynasty, sadly, an early rail line in Beijing was quickly removed in 1865; another line built in 1876 in Shanghai was destroyed in its second year. 

Time: Humans did not have a global single time to agree upon until 1884, when a group of countries approved a single “world time” (the one that we still use today).  Prior to that, in Germany, each big city had its own local time; in the U.S., some 75 different “railroad times” were in use.  China, however, continued to use drum towers as the time signal into the 20^th century.

Map: By the 19^th century, Europeans already had a general knowledge of the “world map” of where is where and how to get to where.  The Qing Dynasty, however, sent out no official travelers, did not encourage private journeys and did not proactively seek out information from the outside world.  The first account by a Chinese person about a Western country was probably Xi Hai Ji You Cao (西海纪游草) published in the early 1840s about a trip to the U.S.  It was then followed by a more influential work, Wei Yuan’s Hai Guo Tu Zhi (海国图志), published in 1844.  

Cost deflation: During the 20 years leading up to 1914, due to steam-/oil-boats and refrigeration technology, the cost of oceangoing shipping to Britain dropped by one-third.  Railroad technology had a similar effect on cost reduction. 

Britain’s rapid relative decline

Britain gave birth to many of the most remarkable technological and economic inventions, such as James Watt’s modern steam engine design (1760s), which allowed long-distance travelling independent of wind direction, and David Ricardo’s classical theory of comparative advantage (1817), which propelled international free trade.  Yet, Britain’s relative decline was equally remarkable.

Industrial output: In 1870, Britain, together with Belgium and France, produced nearly half of the world’s industrial output.  By 1913, these three countries were producing only one-fifth.  By then, Germany already overtook Britain.  The U.S.’ output was more than 2x Britain’s.

Iron and steel production:  In 1870, Britain produced more than Germany and the U.S. combined.  By 1913, these two countries together out-produced Britain by six to one.

Railroad: By 1913, Argentina alone had a more extensive railroad system than Britain’s.

Wage: In 1910, wages in the U.S. and Canada were nearly double those in the U.K.

In the Paris International Exposition of 1900, it was apparent to the audience that the U.K. had started to lag behind in terms of industrial capabilities.  One British observer then noted that the exposition presaged “the Americanization of the world.”  

Very prescient a comment in 1900!

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